RCEMIP

RCEMIP Scientific Objectives

RCEMIP was designed to address the following three themes:

1. What is the response of clouds to warming and the climate sensitivity of RCE?
2. What is the dependence of convective aggregation and tropical circulation regimes on temperature in RCE?
3. What is the robustness of the RCE state, including the above results, across the spectrum of models?

These themes are related to two of the questions raised by Bony et al., 2015 as central to a better understanding of global and regional climate changes: What role does convection play in cloud feedbacks? and What role does convective aggregation play in climate?

While RCEMIP-I dictated common domain configurations, grid spacing, trace gas concentrations, insolation, and SST boundary conditions, it purposefully minimized the code changes (such as modifications to physical schemes) needed to run the simulations, both to ensure broad participation by the community and to reveal the true spread in RCE states using a model's “out-of-the-box” suite of physical schemes (Wing et al., 2018). As summarized in the prior section, several common behaviors emerged from RCEMIP-I despite the great diversity in model physics and numerics, providing strong evidence for fundamental physical mechanisms that are not dependent on the details of physical parameterizations. The model diversity also provided an opportunity to use simple theory to explain the intermodel spread (Wing and Singh, 2024). However, two other points that stand out in considering the RCEMIP-I results are (1) how strikingly large the spread in simulated RCE states is and (2) how strong of an imprint convective self-aggregation has on the climate state (Wing et al., 2020). In particular, the wide range in the degree of self-aggregation and the lack of consensus in its temperature dependence are barriers to understanding.

Our vision for RCEMIP was always that the initial simulations would serve as a starting point, but deep understanding would require performing additional simulations to address issues such as the robustness of the results to experimental design, the sensitivity to model physics and dynamics, and the impact of other factors such as ocean–atmosphere interactions or rotation. In considering possibilities for RCEMIP-II, we sought a protocol that follows the following four principles in the spirit of the design of RCEMIP-I:

1. the ability to directly compare limited-area models with explicit convection and global climate models with parameterized convection;
2. ease of implementation, to encourage the broadest possible participation;
3. a continued investigation of the above three themes of RCEMIP while moving a step up the model hierarchy of complexity; and
4. the provision of an external constraint on convection.

The mock-Walker configuration for RCEMIP-II follows the above philosophy. It is described in detail in the RCEMIP-II protocol paper.

AGU Special Collection:
Using radiative-convective equilibrium to understand convective organization, clouds, and tropical climate

Publications using RCEMIP simulations (Fill out this form to have your paper listed!)

O'Donnell, G. and A.A. Wing (2024): Precipitation Extremes and their Modulation by Convective Organization in RCEMIP, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 16, e2024MS004535, doi:10.1029/2024MS004535.

Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing (2024): How Does Organized Convection Impact Explicitly Resolved Cloud Feedbacks in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Comparison Project, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 16, e2023MS003924, doi:10.1029/2023MS003924.

Wing, A.A., L.G. Silvers, and K.A. Reed (2024): RCEMIP-II: Mock-Walker Simulations as Phase II of the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6195–6225, doi:10.5194/gmd-17-6195-2024.

Wing, A.A. and M.S. Singh (2024): Control of Stability and Relative Humidity in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 16, e2023MS003914, doi:10.1029/2023MS003914.

Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing (2023): Explicitly Resolved Cloud Feedbacks in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 15, e2023MS003738, doi:10.1029/2023MS003738.

Mackie, A. and M.P. Byrne (2022): Effects of circulation on tropical cloud feedbacks in high-resolution simulations, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 15, e2022MS003516, doi:10.1029/2022MS003516.

Silvers, L.G., K.A. Reed, and A.A. Wing (2023): The response of the large-scale tropical circulation to warming, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 15, e2021MS002966, doi:10.1029/2021MS002966.

Pope, K., C.E. Holloway, T.R. Jones, T. Stein (2022): Radiation, Clouds, and Self-Aggregation in RCEMIP Simulations, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., doi:10.1029/2022MS003317.

Li, R.L., J.H.P. Studholme, A.V. Fedorov, and T. Storelvmo (2022): Precipitation efficiency constraint on climate change, Nat. Clim. Chang. 12, 642–648, doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01400-x.

Sokol, A. B. and D.L. Hartmann (2022): Congestus mode invigoration by convective aggregation in simulations of radiative-convective equilibrium, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 14, e2022MS003045, doi:10.1029/2022MS003045.

Coppin, D. and R. Roehrig (2022): Convection self-aggregation in CNRM-CM6-1: Equilibrium and transition sensitivity to surface temperature, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 14, e2022MS003064, doi:10.1029/2022MS003064.

Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing (2022): Properties, Changes, and Controls of Deep-Convecting Clouds in Radiative-Convective Equilibrium, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 14, e2021MS002917, doi:10.1029/2021MS002917.

Pope, K.N., C.E. Holloway, T.R. Jones, and T.H.M. Stein (2021): Cloud-radiation interactions and their contributions to convective self-aggregation. J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., doi:10.1029/2021MS002535.

Bourdin, S., Kluft, L., & Stevens, B. (2021): Dependence of climate sensitivity on the given distribution of relative humidity. Geophys. Res. Lett. doi:10.1029/2021GL092462

Reed, K.A., L.G. Silvers, A.A. Wing, I.-K. Hu, and B. Medeiros (2021): Using radiative convective equilibrium to explore clouds and climate in the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 13, e2021MS002539, doi:10.1029/2021MS002539.

Becker, T. and A.A. Wing (2020): Understanding the extreme spread in climate sensitivity within the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 12, e2020MS002165, doi:10.1029/2020MS002165.

Wing, A.A., C.L. Stauffer, T. Becker, K.A. Reed, M.-S. Ahn, N.P. Arnold, S. Bony, M. Branson, G.H. Bryan, J.-P. Chaboureau, S.R. de Roode, K. Gayatri, C. Hohenegger, I.-K. Hu, F. Jansson, T.R. Jones, M. Khairoutdionv, D. Kim, Z.K. Martin, S. Matsugishi, B. Medeiros, H. Miura, Y. Moon, S.K. Müller, T. Ohno, M. Popp, T. Prabhakaran, D. Randall, R. Rios-Berrios, N. Rochetin, R. Roehrig, D.M. Romps, J.H. Ruppert, Jr., M. Satoh, L.G. Silvers, M.S. Singh, B. Stevens, L. Tomassini, C.C. van Heerwaarden, S. Wang, and M. Zhao (2020): Clouds and convective self-aggregation in a multi-model ensemble of radiative-convective equilibrium simulations, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 12, e2020MS002138, doi:10.1029/2020MS002138.

Jenney, A.M., D.A. Randall, and M.D. Branson (2020): Understanding the response of tropical ascent to warming using an energy balance framework, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 12, doi:10.1029/2020MS002056.

Mol, W.B., C.C. van Heerwaarden, and L. Schlemmer (2019): Surface moisture exchange under vanishing wind in simulations of idealized tropical convection. Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 13602– 13609, doi:10.1029/2019GL085047.

Wing, A. A., K.A. Reed, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony, and T. Ohno (2018): Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 793-813, doi:10.5194/gmd-11-793-2018.

In the News

New Insights into Uncertainties About Earth’s Rising Temperature. 30 October 2020. Eos, 101, doi:10.1029/2020EO151039.
FSU researcher leads international project on how tropical clouds change with climate. 4 November 2020. FSU News.

Presentations about RCEMIP

Recorded Presentation at the Virtual 2020 AGU Fall Meeting

RCEMIP Update at 2024 CFMIP/CLIVAR Meeting

RCEMIP Update at 2022 CFMIP Meeting

RCEMIP Update at 2020 Virtual CFMIP Meeting

An Incomplete List of Presentations using RCEMIP simulations (Fill out this form to have your presentation listed!)

2024 CFMIP/CLIVAR Meeting on Clouds, Circulation and Climate, Boston, MA, 3-6 June 2024.

• Wing, A.A., L. Silvers, and K. Reed, Mock-Walker Simulations as the Second Phase of RCEMIP
• Williams, A. and N. Jeevanjee, A Robust constraint on the response of convective mass fluxes to warming
• O'Donnell, G. L. and A.A. Wing, Tropical precipitatione xtremes and their modulation by convective organization in RCEMIP

2023 Joint CFMP-GASS Meeting on Cloud, Precipitation, Circulation, and Climate Sensitivity, Paris, France, 9-13 July 2023.

• Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing, How does organized convection and its impact on the mean state affect cloud feedbacks?
• O'Donnell, G.L. and A.A. Wing, Precipitation extremes and their modulation by convective organization in RCEMIP
• Wing, A.A., L. Silvers, K. Reed, and M.S. Singh, Convective aggregation and tropical climate in RCEMIP

Other 2023 Meetings

• Wing, A.A. and M.S. Singh, Control of Tropical Stability and Relative Humidity in Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Simulations, EGU General Assembly, Vienna, Austria, 23-28 Apr. 2023.
• Wing, A.A. and C. Stauffer, Using an intercomparison of idealized models with explicit convection to constrain tropical cloud feedbacks, 36th Conference on Climate Variability and Change, 103rd AMS Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, 8-12 January 2023.

2022 CFMIP Meeting on Clouds, Preciptiation, Circulation, and Climate Sensitivity, Seattle, WA, 19-22 July 2022.

• Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing, Cloud feedbacks in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project.
• Wing, A.A. and M.S. Singh, Control of tropical stability and relative humidity by convective processes in RCEMIP.
• Sokol, A., On the relationship between large-scale radiative divergence and anvil cloud.
• Gasparini, B., Response of atmospheric cloud radiative effects to changes in sea surface.

Other 2022 Meetings

• Wing, A.A., C. Stauffer, L. Silvers, K. Reed, M.S. Singh, Convective aggregation, tropical clouds, and climate in RCEMIP, 2022 Model Hierarchies Workshop, Stanford University, CA, 29 Aug - 1 Sept, 2022.
• Stauffer, C.L. and A.A. Wing, The Influence of Changes in Cloud and Aggregation Properties on Cloud Feedbacks in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, Tropical Cyclones, Convection, and Climate: A Symposium in Honor of Kerry Emanuel, Cambridge, MA, 21-22 June, 2022.
• Wing, A.A., Convective self-aggregation and the role of radiative feedbacks, Tropical Cyclones, Convection, and Climate: A Symposium in Honor of Kerry Emanuel, Cambridge, MA, 21-22 June, 2022.
• Wing, A.A. and M.S. Singh, Control of Tropical Stability and Relative Humidity in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, 35th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, New Orleans, LA, 9-13 May 2022.
• Stauffer, C. and A.A. Wing, Cloud feedbacks in the Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project, 35th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, New Orleans, LA, 9-13 May 2022.

34th AMS Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Virtual, 10-14 May 2021.

• Stauffer, C.L., A.A. Wing, and K.A Reed, Radiative Convective Equilibrium, Self-Aggregation, and Climate in the RCEMIP Suite.
• Pope, K.N., C.E. Holloway, T. Stein, and T.R. Jones, Cloud-radiation interactions and their contributions to convective self-aggregation.
• Hu, I-K. and B.E. Mapes, Radiative-convective equilibrium and coupling to parameterized large-scale dynamics in single column Community Atmosphere Model
• Seidel, S. and D. Yang, Anvil and Tropopause Temperatures Increase with Climate Warming

2021 EGU General Assembly, Virtual, 19-30 April 2021.

• Bourdin, S., Kluft, L., and Stevens, B.: Humidity-dependence of Climate Sensitivity
• Pope, K., C. Holloway, T. Stein, T. Jones, and M. Whitall, Cloud-radiation interactions and their contributions to convective self-aggregation

Other 2021 Meetings

• Wing, A.A., Convective self-aggregation in the RCEMIP simulations. Workshop on Spatial Organization of Convection, Clouds and Precipitation, Niels Bohr Institute, Virtual, 5-7 May 2021.

2020 Meetings

• Wing, A.A., C.L. Stauffer, T. Becker, K.A. Reed, M.-S. Ahn, N.P. Arnold, S. Bony, M. Branson, G.H. Bryan, J.-P. Chaboureau, S.R. de Roode, K. Gayatri, C. Hohenegger, I.-K. Hu, F. Jansson, T.R. Jones, M. Khairoutdinov, D. Kim, Z.K. Martin, S. Matsugishi, B. Medeiros, H. Miura, Y. Moon, S.K. Müller, T. Ohno, M. Popp, T. Prabhakaran, D. Randall, R. Rios-Berrios, N. Rochetin, R. Roehrig, D.M. Romps, J.H. Ruppert, Jr., M. Satoh, L.G. Silvers, M.S. Singh, B. Stevens, L. Tomassini, C.C. van Heerwaarden, S. Wang, and M. Zhao (2020): Clouds and convective self-aggregation in a multi-model ensemble of radiative-convective equilibrium simulations, AGU Fall Meeting, Virtual, 1-17 Dec 2020.
• Silvers, L.G., K.A. Reed, and A.A. Wing The response of the large-scale tropical circulation to warming, AGU Fall Meeting, Virtual, 1-17 Dec 2020.
• Wing, A.A., Does deep convective organization matter for climate? 2020 Virtual CFMIP Meeting on Clouds, Precipitation, Circulation, and Climate Sensitivity, 14-17 September 2020.
• Wing, A.A., Convective self-aggregation: Impact on climate and sensitivity to SST across the RCEMIP simulations. From BOMEX to EUREC4A Symposium, Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology, Bridgetown, Barbados, 1-2 February 2020.

2019 CFMIP Meeting on Clouds, Preciptiation, Circulation, and Climate Sensitivity, Mykonos, Greece, 30 Sept - 4 Oct 2019.

• Wing, A.A., C. Stauffer, K.A. Reed, T. Becker, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony, and T. Ohno, Tropical clouds and convection in RCE simulations.
• Becker, T., Climate sensitivity across the RCEMIP ensemble.

UCP2019: Understanding Clouds and Precipitation, Berlin, Germany, 25 February - 1 March 2019.

• Wing, A.A., K.A. Reed, C. Stauffer, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony, and T. Ohno, Convective aggregation, clouds, and climate sensitivity in RCE simulations.
• van Heerwaarden, C. and W. Mol, On the importance of the surface flux formulation in large-eddy simulations of radiative-convective equilibrium.
• Reed, K.A. and A.A. Wing, Clouds and Convection in RCEMIP Simulations with the Community Atmosphere Model
• Becker, T. C. Hohenegger, J. Ruppert,N. Rochetin, S. Dacie, S. Mueller, B. Stevens, Convective Self Aggregation and Radiative Convective Equilibrium across the MPI-M model hierarchy.

Other 2019 Meetings

• Holloway, C. and T. Jones, Using convective aggregation to inform convection parametrization development, Convection Parameterization: Progress and Challenges Workshop, Met Office, Exeter, UK, 15-19 July 2019.

2018 AGU Fall Meeting, Washington, DC, 10-14 December 2018.

• Stevens, B., T. Becker, N. Rochetin, S. Dacie, C. Hohenegger, S. Mueller, and J.H. Ruppert Jr., Convective self-aggregation and radiative convective equilibrium across the MPI-M model hierarchy.
• Wing, A.A., K.A. Reed, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony and T. Ohno, RCEMIP: Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project.
• Bryan, G.H., Sensitivity of Convective Self-Aggregation to Subtle Details in a Surface-Layer Parameterization in Simulations of Radiative-Convective Equilibrium.
• Jones, T.R., P.A. Clark, R. Plant, C.E. Holloway, and S.J. Woolnough, Radiative-convective equilibrium across the gray zone.
• Zhao, M. and S.-J. Lin, A study of convective clouds and their feedbacks in an idealized radiative convective equilibrium using the GFDL non-hydrostatic atmospheric model with horizontal resolutions of 1 to 24km.

Other 2018 Meetings

• Wing, A.A., Convective aggregation, clouds, and climate sensitivity in RCE simulations. 2018 CFMIP Meeting on Clouds, Precipitation, Circulation, and Climate Sensitivity, Boulder, CO, 16-19 October 2018.
• Wing, A.A., K. A Reed, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony and T. Ohno, Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project. 33rd Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology, Ponte Vedra, FL, 16-20 April 2018.
• Wing, A.A., K. A Reed, M. Satoh, B. Stevens, S. Bony and T. Ohno, Radiative-Convective Equilibrium Model Intercomparison Project. Pan-GASS Conference on Understanding and Modelling Atmospheric Processes, Lorne, Victoria, Australia, 26 February - 2 March, 2018. [oral]

Session at 2018 AGU Fall Meeting

Our session inspired by RCEMIP at the AGU Fall Meeting in Washington, DC was titled Insights on Clouds, Convection, and Climate Sensitivity from Idealized Modeling Studies. It included poster presentations (A23K) from 1:40-6 pm on Tuesday December 11 in hall A-C and oral presentations (A34F) on Wednesday December 12 from 4-6 pm in room 152A.

Poster about RCEMIP



A Non-Exhaustive List of Relevant Papers that Motivated RCEMIP

Wing, A. A. (2019): Self-aggregation of deep convection and its implications for climate, Curr. Clim. Change Rep., doi:10.1007/s40641-019-00120-3.

Cronin, T.W. and A.A. Wing< (2017), Clouds, circulation, and climate sensitivity in a radiative-convective equilibrium channel model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 9, 2833-2905, doi:10.1002/2017MS001111.

Wing, A. A., Emanuel, K., Holloway, C. E., and Muller, C. (2017), Convective self-aggregation in numerical simulations: A review, Surveys in Geophysics, doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9408-4.

Jeevanjee, N., Hassanzadeh, P., Hill, S. A., and Sheshadri, A. (2017): A perspective on climate model hierarchies, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 35 doi:10.1002/2017MS001038.

Bony, S., Stevens, B., Coppin, D., Becker, T., Reed, K. A., Voigt, A., and Medeiros, B. (2016): Thermodynamic control of anvil cloud amount, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 113, 8927–8932, doi:10.1073/pnas.1601472113.

Hohenegger, C. and Stevens, B. (2016): Coupled radiative convective equilibrium simulationswith explicit and parameterized convection, J. Adv.Model. Earth Sys., 8, doi:10.1002/2016MS000666.

Pendergrass, A. G., Reed, K. A., and Medeiros, B. (2016): The link between extreme precipitation and convective organization in a warming climate: Global radiative-convective equilibrium simulations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 11,445–11,452, doi:10.1002/2016GL071285.

Reed, K. and Medeiros, B. (2016): A reduced complexity framework to bridge the gap between AGCMs and cloud-resolving models Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 860–866, doi:10.1002/2015GL066713.

Satoh, M., Arakami, K., and Sawada, M. (2016): Structure of tropical convective systems in aqua-planet experiments: Radiative-convective equilibrium versus the Earth-like experiments, SOLA, 12, 220–224.

Silvers, L. G., Stevens, B., Mauritsen, T., and Giorgetta, M. (2016): Radiative convective equilibrium as a framework for studying the interaction between convection and its large-scale environment, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 8, doi:10.1002/2016MS000629.

Wing, A. A. and Cronin, T. W. (2016), Self-aggregation of convection in long channel geometry, Q.J.R. Meteorol. Soc., 142, 1-15, doi:10.1002/qj.2628.

Arnold, N. P. and Randall, D. A. (2015): Global-scale convective aggregation: Implications for the Madden-Julian Oscillation, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., doi:10.1002/2015MS000498.

Bony, S., Stevens, B., Frierson, D. M. W., Jakob, C., Kageyam, M., Pincus, R., Shepherd, T. G., Sherwood, S. C., Siebesma, A. P., Sobel, A. H., Watanabe, M., and Webb, M. J. (2015): Clouds, circulation and climate sensitivity, Nature Geoscience, 8, 261–268, 10 doi:doi:10.1038/ngeo2398.

Coppin, D. and Bony, S. (2015): Physical mechanisms controlling the initiation of convective self-aggregation in a General Circulation Model, Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 7, 2060–2078, doi:10.1002/2015MS000571.

Mauritsen, T. and Stevens, B. (2015): Missing iris effect as a possible cause of muted hydrological change and high climate sensitivity in models, Nature Geoscience, 8, 346–351, doi:10.1038/ngeo2414.

Reed, K., Medeiros, B., Bacmeister, J. T., and Laurtizen, P. H. (2015): Global radiative-convective equilibrium in the Community Atmosphere Model 5, J. Atmos Sci., 72, 2183-2197, doi:10.1175/JAS-D-14-1268.1.

Emanuel, K., Wing, A.A., and E. Vincent, E. (2014), Radiative-Convective Instability, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 6, 75-90, doi:10.1002/2013MS000270.

Wing, A. A. and Emanuel, K. A. (2014), Physical mechanisms controlling self-aggregation of convection in idealized numerical modeling simulations, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 6, 59-74, doi:10.1002/2013MS000269.

Popke, D., Stevens, B., and Voigt, A. (2013): Climate and climate change in a radiative-convective equilibrium version of ECHAM6, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sys., 5, 1–14, doi:10.1029/2012MS000191.

Muller, C. J. and Held, I. M. (2012): Detailed investigation of the self-aggregation of convection in cloud resovling simulations, J. Atmos. Sci., 69, 2551–2565, doi:10.1175/JAS-D-11-0257.1.

Held, I. M., Zhao, M., and Wyman, B. (2007): Dynamic radiative-convective equilibria using GCM column physics, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 228–238,doi:10.1175/JAS3825.11.

Bretherton, C. S., Blossey, P. N., and Khairoutdinov, M. (2005): An energy-balance analysis of deep convective self-aggregation above uniform SST, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4237–4292, doi:10.1175/JAS3614.1

Tompkins, A. and Craig, G. (1998): Radiative-convective equilibrium in a three-dimensional cloud-ensemble model, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 124, 2073–2097.

Renno, N. O., Emanul, K. A., and Stone, P. H. (1994): A radiative-convective model with an explicit hydrological cycle. Part I: Formulation and sensitivity to model parameters, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 14 429–14 441.

Held, I. M., Hemler, R. S., and Ramaswamy, V. (1993): Radiative-convective equilibrium with explicity two-dimensional moist convection, J. Atmos. Sci, 50, 3909–3927.

Satoh, M. and Hayashi, Y.-Y. (1992): Simple cumulus models in one-dimensional radiative convective equilibrium problems, J. Atmos. Sci., 49, 1202–1220.

Nakajima, K. and Matsuno, T. (1998): Numerical experiments concerning the origin of cloud clusters in the tropical atmospheres, J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 66, 309–329.

Ramanathan, V. and Coakley, J. (1978): Climate modeling through radiative-convective models, Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 16, 465–489.

Manabe, S. and Strickler, R. F. (1964): Thermal equilibriation of the atmosphere with a convective adjustment, J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 361–385.

Möller, F. (1963): On Influence of Changes in CO₂ Concentration in Air on Radiation Balance of Earths Surface and on Climate, J. Geophys. Res., 68, 3877-3886.